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Abstract

The metabolism of food crops irrigated with untreated wastewater leads to heavy metal exposure in edible plant components, and even at extremely low doses, the consumption of toxic elements can pose serious health threats to humans. This problem is alarmingly striking in Pakistan, where wastewater irrigation for agriculture has become extensive in urban and peri-urban areas due to water scarcity. The present study integrates investigations on two commonly consumed root vegetables, carrot (Daucus carota L.) and turnip (Brassica rapa L.), cultivated in Sargodha and Sillanwali during 2023–2024 using sewage water, canal water, and tube well water. The study aimed to examine the levels of copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr) in soil, water, crops, and human blood samples, and to evaluate the potential health risks associated with their consumption. Physico-chemical analysis of soil and water samples was carried out, and heavy metal contamination was assessed using contamination factor (CF), enrichment factor (EF), bioconcentration factor (BCF), estimated daily intake (EDI), and hazard quotient (HQ). The uptake of metals from soil into the edible parts of carrot and turnip was also evaluated. Results showed that metal concentrations were highest at sewage water sites (SW1) and lowest at tube well sites (TW2). Comparative assessment revealed species-specific uptake patterns, with carrot showing relatively higher accumulation of Fe and Mn, while turnip exhibited comparatively higher Zn and Pb concentrations. However, all index values and HQ remained below 1, indicating that metal concentrations were within permissible limits. This study adds weight to existing evidence suggesting that open cultivation under untreated wastewater should be discouraged and highlights the urgent need for wastewater treatment and continuous monitoring to ensure food safety

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