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Integrated assessment of heavy metal bioaccumulation, human health risks, and antimicrobial activity in medicinal plants from Punjab, Pakistan
Abstract
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad., Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew., and Calotropis procera (Aiton.) W.T. Aiton were selected as medicinal plants from the environmentally diverse locations of Punjab province, Pakistan, such as Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Rahim Yar Khan, and Lodhran. Variation in the levels of eight heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn) was found among different species. Capparis decidua accumulated more heavy metals than other medicinal plants, particularly Hg (6.566 mg/kg), Pb (3.666 mg/kg), Ni (5.424 mg/kg), Cd (1.344 mg/kg), Zn (43.23 mg/kg), while Calotropis procera accumulated more As and Cu. Significant non-carcinogenic health risks (THQ > 1) were assessed by Hazard Index (HI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), which exceeded safety limits in all the plant species, indicating health hazards related to the consumption of medicinal plants. The antibacterial potential against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus was checked using the agar well diffusion method. Calotropis procera exhibited the strongest inhibitory effects against S. aureus (22.0 ± 0.6 mm), B. subtilis (19.5 ± 0.5 mm), and E. coli (14.5 ± 0.4 mm), followed by Capparis decidua and Citrullus colocynthis. HPLC analysis identified numerous bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, and terpenoids. Capparis decidua demonstrated the greatest phytochemical diversity, whereas Calotropis procera contained higher concentrations of several potent metabolites.
